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14th-century Arab historiographer and historian

Ibn Khaldun
Bust of Ibn Khaldun in the archway of the Kasbah of Bejaia, People's democratic republic of algeria
Personal
Born	27 May 1332 Tunis, Hafsid Sultanate
Died	17 March 1406 (1406-03-xviii) (aged 73) Cairo, Arab republic of egypt
Religion	Islam
Denomination	Sunni[1]
Jurisprudence	Maliki[two]
Creed	Ash'ari[3] [4]
Main interest(southward)	Historiography sociology economics census political science
Notable thought(s)	Asabiyyah Conquest theory of state germination Cyclical theory of empires Economic growth theory[v] Political midlife crisis Supply and demand theory[six]
Muslim leader
Influenced past Al-Ghazali Ibn Jarir Ibn Hazm Al-Farabi[7] At-Turtushi[8] Ibn Abi Zar Averroes Avempace Aristotle Al-Jahiz[9]
Influenced Ibn al-Khatib Ibn al-Sakkak Al-Maqrizi Ibn al-Azraq Machiavelli Çelebi Mustafa Naima Hume Smith Hegel Ricardo Ahmed Cevdet Guenon Toynbee Schuon Reagan Nasr Amel Laffer

Ibn Khaldun (; Arabic: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, Abū Zayd 'Abd ar-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Khaldūn al-Ḥaḍramī ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406) was a Muslim Arab^[10] sociologist, philosopher and historian^{[xi] [12]} who has been described as the precursive founder of the proto-disciplines^{[thirteen] [14]} that would become historiography, sociology, economics, and demography.^{[note 1] [15] [note ii]} Niccolò Machiavelli of the Renaissance, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and 19th-century European scholars widely acknowledged the significance of his works and considered Ibn Khaldun to be ane of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages.^[xvi] And although this aspect of his work is non mostly noted, The Muqaddimah also contains elements of what would become the disquisitional study of religions, in Germany known as "Religionsgeschichte" and in English language as "the history of religions".

His best-known book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena ("Introduction"), which he wrote in six months as he states in his autobiography,^[17] influenced 17th-century and 19th-century Ottoman historians such equally Kâtip Çelebi, Mustafa Naima and Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who used its theories to clarify the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.^[18] Ibn Khaldun interacted with Tamerlane, the founder of the Timurid Empire.

Family unit [edit]

Ibn Khaldun – Life-size bronze bosom sculpture of Ibn Khaldun that is function of the drove at the Arab American National Museum (Itemize Number 2010.02). Deputed by The Tunisian Community Heart and Created by Patrick Morelli of Albany, NY in 2009. It was inspired past the statue of Ibn Khaldun erected at the Avenue Habib Bourguiba in Tunis.^[19]

Ibn Khaldun'southward life is relatively well-documented, as he wrote an autobiography ( التعريف بابن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا , at-Taʻrīf bi-ibn Khaldūn wa-Riḥlatih Gharban wa-Sharqan ^[twenty]) ("Presenting Ibn Khaldun and his Journeying West and East") in which numerous documents regarding his life are quoted word-for-word.

Abdurahman bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Al-Hasan bin Jabir bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Abdurahman bin Ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami, by and large known as "Ibn Khaldūn" after a remote ancestor, was built-in in Tunis in AD 1332 (732 AH) into an upper-class Andalusian family of Arab descent,^[ten] the family unit's ancestor was a Hadhrami who shared kinship with Waíl ibn Hujr, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. His family unit, which held many high offices in Al-Andalus, had emigrated to Tunisia after the fall of Seville to the Reconquista in AD 1248. Although some of his family unit members had held political office in the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty, his begetter and granddad later on withdrew from political life and joined a mystical lodge. His blood brother, Yahya Khaldun, was besides a historian who wrote a volume on the Abdalwadid dynasty and was assassinated by a rival for being the official historiographer of the court.^[21]

In his autobiography, Khaldun traces his descent back to the time of Muhammad through an Arab tribe from Yemen, specifically the Hadhramaut, which came to the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century, at the beginning of the Islamic conquest: "And our ancestry is from Hadhramaut, from the Arabs of Republic of yemen, via Wa'il ibn Hujr also known equally Hujr ibn 'Adi, from the best of the Arabs, well-known and respected." (p. 2429, Al-Waraq'due south edition).

However, the modernistic biographer Mohammad Enan emphasised the unclear origins of Ibn Khaldun relying on the fact that Ibn Khaldun'southward criticism of Arabs might exist a valid reason to bandage dubiousness on his Arab origin. On the other hand, Ibn Khaldun's insistence and attachment to his merits of Arab beginnings at a fourth dimension of Berber dynasties domination is also a valid reason to believe his claim.^{[22] [23]}

Education [edit]

His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with prominent teachers in Maghreb. He received a classical Islamic education, studying the Quran, which he memorized by heart, Standard arabic linguistics; the basis for agreement the Qur'an, hadith, sharia (law) and fiqh (jurisprudence). He received certification (ijazah) for all of those subjects.^[24] The mathematician and philosopher Al-Abili of Tlemcen introduced him to mathematics, logic and philosophy, and he studied especially the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and Tusi. At the historic period of 17, Ibn Khaldūn lost both his parents to the Blackness Death, an intercontinental epidemic of the plague that hitting Tunis in 1348–1349.^[25]

Post-obit family tradition, he strove for a political career. In the face of a tumultuous political situation in North Africa, that required a loftier degree of skill in developing and dropping alliances prudently to avoid falling with the short-lived regimes of the fourth dimension.^[26] Ibn Khaldūn's autobiography is the story of an chance, in which he spends fourth dimension in prison, reaches the highest offices and falls once again into exile.

Political career [edit]

Birth domicile of Ibn Khaldun at Tunis

The mosque in which Ibn Khaldun studied

At the age of 20, he began his political career in the chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah (seal-bearer),^[27] which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory notes of official documents. In 1352, Abū Ziad, the sultan of Constantine, marched on Tunis and defeated it. Ibn Khaldūn, in any case unhappy with his respected but politically meaningless position, followed his teacher Abili to Fez. There, the Marinid sultan, Abū Inan Fares I, appointed him as a writer of majestic proclamations, just Ibn Khaldūn still schemed against his employer, which, in 1357, got the 25-yr-one-time a 22-month prison sentence. Upon the death of Abū Inan in 1358, Vizier al-Hasān ibn-Umar granted him liberty and reinstated him to his rank and offices. Ibn Khaldūn and so schemed against Abū Inan'southward successor, Abū Salem Ibrahim III, with Abū Salem's exiled uncle, Abū Salem. When Abū Salem came to power, he gave Ibn Khaldūn a ministerial position, the first position to correspond with Ibn Khaldūn's ambitions.

The treatment that Ibn Khaldun received after the fall of Abū Salem through Ibn-Amar ʻAbdullah, a friend of Ibn Khaldūn'southward, was not to his liking, as he received no significant official position. At the same time, Amar successfully prevented Ibn Khaldūn, whose political skills he knew well, from allying with the Abd al-Wadids in Tlemcen. Ibn Khaldūn, therefore, decided to move to Granada. He could be certain of a positive welcome at that place since at Fez, he had helped the Sultan of Granada, the Nasrid Muhammad Five, regain ability from his temporary exile. In 1364, Muhammad entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the king of Castile, Pedro the Savage, to endorse a peace treaty. Ibn Khaldūn successfully carried out this mission and politely declined Pedro'due south offer to remain at his court and take his family'southward Spanish possessions returned to him.

In Granada, Ibn Khaldūn speedily came into contest with Muhammad's vizier, Ibn al-Khatib, who viewed the shut relationship between Muhammad and Ibn Khaldūn with increasing mistrust. Ibn Khaldūn tried to shape the young Muhammad into his ideal of a wise ruler, an enterprise that Ibn al-Khatib thought foolish and a danger to peace in the country. History proved al-Khatib right, and at his instigation, Ibn Khaldūn was eventually sent dorsum to North Africa. Al-Khatib himself was subsequently accused by Muhammad of having unorthodox philosophical views and murdered despite an attempt by Ibn Khaldūn to intercede on behalf of his old rival.

In his autobiography, Ibn Khaldūn tells picayune about his disharmonize with Ibn al-Khatib and the reasons for his difference. Orientalist Muhsin Mahdi interprets that every bit showing that Ibn Khaldūn later realised that he had completely misjudged Muhammad V.

Back in Ifriqiya, the Hafsid sultan of Bougie, Abū ʻAbdallāh, who had been his companion in prison, received him with great enthusiasm and made Ibn Khaldūn his prime government minister. Ibn Khaldūn carried out a daring mission to collect taxes amongst the local Berber tribes. After the death of Abū ʻAbdallāh in 1366, Ibn Khaldūn changed sides again and allied himself with the Sultan of Tlemcen, Abū l-Abbas. A few years after, he was taken prisoner by Abu Faris Abdul Aziz, who had defeated the sultan of Tlemcen and seized the throne. He so entered a monastic establishment and occupied himself with scholastic duties until 1370. In that year, he was sent for to Tlemcen past the new sultan. After the decease of ʻAbdu l-Azīz, he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and conviction of the regent.

Ibn Khaldūn'south political skills and, above all, his good relationship with the wild Berber tribes were in high need amid the Northward African rulers, merely he had begun to tire of politics and constantly switching allegiances. In 1375, he was sent by Abū Hammu, the ʻAbdu l Wadid Sultan of Tlemcen, on a mission to the Dawadida Arabs tribes of Biskra. After his return to the W, Ibn Khaldūn sought refuge with one of the Berber tribes in the due west of Algeria, in the town of Qalat Ibn Salama. He lived at that place for over three years nether their protection, taking reward of his seclusion to write the Muqaddimah "Prolegomena", the introduction to his planned history of the globe. In Ibn Salama, however, he lacked the necessary texts to consummate the work.^[28] Therefore, in 1378, he returned to his native Tunis, which had meanwhile been conquered by Abū l-Abbas, who took Ibn Khaldūn back into his service. There, he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and completed his history of the earth. His human relationship with Abū 50-Abbas remained strained, equally the latter questioned his loyalty. That was brought into abrupt contrast subsequently Ibn Khaldūn presented him with a re-create of the completed history that omitted the usual panegyric to the ruler. Under pretence of going on the Hajj to Mecca, something for which a Muslim ruler could not only refuse permission, Ibn Khaldūn was able to leave Tunis and to sail to Alexandria.

After life [edit]

Ibn Khaldun said of Egypt, "He who has non seen it does non know the power of Islam."^[29] While other Islamic regions had to cope with edge wars and inner strife, Mamluk Egypt enjoyed prosperity and loftier civilisation. In 1384, the Egyptian Sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barquq, made Khaldun professor of the Qamhiyyah Madrasah and appointed him as the Yard qadi of the Maliki school of fiqh (i of iv schools, the Maliki school was widespread primarily in Western Africa). His efforts at reform encountered resistance, nevertheless, and within a yr, he had to resign his judgeship. Also in 1384, a ship conveying Khaldun'southward wife and children sank off of Alexandria.

After his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca in May 1388, Ibn Khaldūn concentrated on pedagogy at diverse Cairo madrasas. At the Mamluk courtroom he fell from favor because during revolts against Barquq, he had, plain under duress, with other Cairo jurists, issued a fatwa confronting Barquq. Later relations with Barquq returned to normal, and he was once again named the Maliki qadi. Altogether, he was called six times to that high office, which, for various reasons, he never held long.

In 1401, under Barquq'south successor, his son Faraj, Ibn Khaldūn took office in a military campaign against the Mongol conqueror, Timur, who besieged Damascus in 1400. Ibn Khaldūn cast doubt upon the viability of the venture and really wanted to stay in Arab republic of egypt. His doubts were vindicated, as the immature and inexperienced Faraj, concerned about a revolt in Egypt, left his ground forces to its own devices in Syria and hurried abode. Ibn Khaldūn remained at the besieged city for seven weeks, existence lowered over the city wall by ropes to negotiate with Timur, in a celebrated series of meetings that he reported extensively in his autobiography.^[xxx] Timur questioned him in detail nigh conditions in the lands of the Maghreb. At his request, Ibn Khaldūn even wrote a long report about it. Equally he recognized Timur'due south intentions, he did not hesitate, on his return to Egypt, to etch an equally-all-encompassing report on the history of the Tatars, together with a character study of Timur, sending them to the Merinid rulers in Fez (Maghreb).

Ibn Khaldūn spent the side by side five years in Cairo completing his autobiography and his history of the world and interim as teacher and estimate. Meanwhile, he was alleged to take joined an underground political party, Rijal Hawa Rijal, whose reform-oriented ethics attracted the attention of local political authorities. The elderly Ibn Khaldun was placed under abort. He died on 17 March 1406, i month later his sixth selection for the role of the Maliki qadi (Judge).

Works [edit]

Kitāb al-ʻIbar [edit]

• Kitāb al-ʻIbar , (full title: Kitāb al-ʻIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʼ wa-50-Khabar fī Taʼrīkh al-ʻArab wa-50-Barbar wa-Man ʻĀṣarahum min Dhawī ash-Shaʼn al-Akbār "Book of Lessons, Record of Beginnings and Events in the History of the Arabs and the Berbers and Their Powerful Contemporaries"); begun as a history of the Berbers and expanded to a universal history in seven books.^{[31] [32]}

Book 1; Al-Muqaddimah ('The Introduction'), a socio-economic-geographical universal history of empires, and the best known of his works.^[33]

Books ii-five; World History up to the author's ain time.

Books six-7; Historiography of the Berbers and the Maghreb. Khaldun departs from the classical manner of Arab historians^{[annotation 3]} past synthesising multiple, sometimes contradictory, sources without citations.^[34] He reproduces some errors originating probably from his 14th-century Fez source, the work Rawḍ al-Qirṭās past Ibn Abi Zar, nonetheless Al-'Ibar remains an invaluable source of Berber history.

Businesses owned past responsible and organized merchants shall eventually surpass those owned past wealthy rulers.[35]

Ibn Khaldun on economic growth and the ideals of Platonism

Concerning the bailiwick of sociology, he described the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well equally the inevitable loss of power that occurs when warriors conquer a metropolis. According to the Arab scholar Sati' al-Husri, the Muqaddimah may be read as a sociological work. The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'aṣabiyyah, which has been translated every bit "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; information technology tin can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains inside itself the seeds – psychological, sociological, economic, political – of the grouping's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound past a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion. Some of Ibn Khaldun's views, peculiarly those apropos the Zanj people of sub-Saharan Africa,^[36] take been cited as racist,^[37] though they were not uncommon for their time. According to the scholar Abdelmajid Hannoum, Ibn Khaldun's description of the distinctions between Berbers and Arabs were misinterpreted past the translator William McGuckin de Slane, who wrongly inserted a "racial credo that sets Arabs and Berbers apart and in opposition" into his translation of role of`Ibar translated nether the title Histoire des Berbères .^[38]

Perhaps the nigh frequently cited observation fatigued from Ibn Khaldūn's piece of work is the notion that when a society becomes a nifty culture, its high point is followed by a catamenia of decay. This means that the next cohesive group that conquers the macerated civilization is, by comparison, a group of barbarians. Once the barbarians solidify their control over the conquered social club, nevertheless, they become attracted to its more refined aspects, such as literacy and arts, and either assimilate into or appropriate such cultural practices. And so, eventually, the sometime barbarians volition be conquered by a new ready of barbarians, who will repeat the procedure.

Georgetown Academy Professor Ibrahim Oweiss, an economist and historian, notes that Schumpeter and David Hume both proposed a labor theory of value, though Khaldun did not refer to it as either a labor theory of value or theory.^[39]

Ibn Khaldun outlines an early example of political economy^{[ dubious – discuss ]}. He describes the economic system as being composed of value-calculation processes; that is, labor and skill is added to techniques and crafts and the product is sold at a higher value^{[ dubious – discuss ]}. He likewise made the stardom between "profit" and "sustenance", in mod political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major piece of work, the Muqaddimah. In Al-Muqaddimah Khaldun states, "Civilization and its well-being, besides as business organization prosperity, depend on productivity and people's efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit".^[twoscore] Ibn Khaldun diverged from norms that Muslim historians followed and rejected their focus on the credibility of the transmitter and focused instead on the validity of the stories and encouraged critical thinking.^[41]

Ibn Khaldun also outlines early on theories of division of labor, taxes, scarcity, and economical growth.^[42] Khaldun was also one of the offset to study the origin and causes of poverty; he argued that poverty was a result of the destruction of morality and human values.^[43] He also looked at what factors contribute to wealth such as consumption, regime, and investment—a precursor to our modern Gdp-formula.^[44] Khaldun also argued that poverty was non necessarily a result of poor financial decision-making but of external consequences and therefore the government should be involved in alleviating poverty.^[45]

Ibn Khaldun also believed that the currency of an Islamic monetary system should have intrinsic value and therefore exist fabricated of golden and argent (such as the dirham). He emphasized that the weight and purity of these coins should be strictly followed: the weight of ane dinar should exist one mithqal (the weight of 72 grains of barley, roughly 4.25 grams) and the weight of 7 dinar should exist equal to weight of 10 dirhams (vii/x of a mithqal or 2.96 grams).^[46]

Ibn Khaldun'due south writings regarding the sectionalisation of labor are often compared to Adam Smith'south writings on the topic.

The private being cannot by himself obtain all the necessities of life. All human beings must co-operate to that end in their civilization. Merely what is obtained by the cooperation of a grouping of homo beings satisfies the need of a number many times greater than themselves. For instance, no ane by himself tin obtain the share of the wheat he needs for food. But when six or ten persons, including a smith and a carpenter to make the tools, and others who are in charge of the oxen, the ploughing of, the harvesting of the ripe grain, and all other agricultural activities, undertake to obtain their food and work toward that purpose either separately or collectively and thus obtain through their labour a certain corporeality of food, that amount volition be food for a number of people many times their own. The combined labour produces more than the needs and necessities of the workers (Ibn Khaldun 1958, vol.II 271 -272)^[47]

In every other art and manufacture, the effects of the partitioning of labour are similar to what they are in this very trifling 1 [pivot production]; though, in many of them, the labour can either be so much subdivided, nor reduced to and so great a simplicity of performance. The sectionalisation of labour, however, so far as it tin can exist introduced, occasions, in every art, a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labour (Smith 1976a, vol. I, thirteen–24)^[48]

Both Ibn Khaldun and Smith shared the idea that the sectionalization of labor is primal to economical growth, however, the motivations and context for such partitioning differed between them. For Ibn Khaldun, asabiyyah or social solidarity was the underlying motive and context behind the sectionalization of labor; for Smith it was self-involvement and the market economic system.^[49]

[edit]

Ibn Khaldun'due south epistemology attempted to reconcile mysticism with theology by dividing science into two different categories, the religious science that regards the sciences of the Qur'an and the non-religious scientific discipline. He farther classified the not-religious sciences into intellectual sciences such as logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, etc. and auxiliary sciences such as language, literature, poetry, etc. He too suggested that possibly more divisions will appear in the future with dissimilar societies. He tried to adapt to all possible societies' cultural behavior and influence in education, economics and politics. Nonetheless, he didn't think that laws were chosen by just one leader or a small group of individual merely mostly by the majority of the individuals of a society.^[50]

To Ibn Khaldun, the land was a necessity of human being order to restrain injustice within the society, but the country means is force, thus itself an injustice. All societies must have a land governing them in order to institute a gild. He attempted to standardize the history of societies by identifying ubiquitous phenomena present in all societies. To him, civilisation was a phenomenon that will be present as long equally humans exist. He characterized the fulfillment of basic needs as the beginning of civilization. At the commencement, people will expect for different ways of increasing productivity of basic needs and expansion will occur. Later the social club starts becoming more than sedentary and focuses more on crafting, arts and the more than refined characteristics. By the stop of a society, information technology will weaken, assuasive another small group of individuals to come into control. The conquering group is described as an unsatisfied group within the gild itself or a group of desert bandits that constantly attack other weaker or weakened societies.

In the Muqaddimah, his most important work, he discusses an introduction of philosophy to history in a full general mode, based on observable patterns within a theoretical framework of known historical events of his time. He described the beginnings, development, cultural trends and the autumn of all societies, leading to the rise of a new society which would then follow the same trends in a continuous cycle. As well, he recommended the all-time political approaches to develop a society according to his knowledge of history. He heavily emphasized that a practiced society would be i in which a tradition of education is deeply rooted in its culture.^[27] Ibn Khaldun (1987) introduced the word asabiya (solidarity, group feeling, or grouping consciousness), to explain tribalism. The concept of asabiya has been translated equally "social cohesion," "grouping solidarity," or "tribalism." This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other pocket-sized kinship groups (Rashed,2017).

Ibn Khaldun believed that too much bureaucracy, such as taxes and legislations, would lead to the decline of a gild, since it would constrain the development of more specialized labor (increase in scholars and development of unlike services). He believed that bureaucrats cannot sympathize the world of commerce and exercise not possess the same motivation as a businessman.^[27]

In his work the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun emphasizes human beings' faculty to retrieve (fikr) as what determines human behavior and ubiquitous patterns. This faculty is as well what inspires human beings to grade into a social structure to co-operate in segmentation of labor and organisation. Co-ordinate to Zaid Ahmand in Epistemology and the Human Dimension in Urban Studies, the fikr faculty is the supporting pillar for all philosophical aspects of Ibn Khaldun's theory related to human beings' spiritual, intellectual, concrete, social and political tendencies.

Another of import concept he emphasizes in his work is the mastery of crafts, habits and skills. This takes place after a social club is established and co-ordinate to Ibn Khaldun the level of achievement of a lodge can exist adamant past just analyzing these three concepts. A society in its primeval stages is nomadic and primarily concerned with survival, while a society at a later phase is sedentary, with greater achievement in crafts. A society with a sedentary culture and stable politics would be expected to accept greater achievements in crafts and technology.^[27]

Ibn Khaldun also emphasized in his epistemology the important aspect that educational tradition plays to ensure the new generations of a civilisation continuously meliorate in the sciences and develop civilization. Ibn Khaldun argued that without the potent establishment of an educational tradition, it would be very difficult for the new generations to maintain the achievements of the before generations, allow lonely improve them.

Another fashion to distinguish the achievement of a society would be the language of a guild, since for him the most important element of a society would not exist land, but the language spoken. He was surprised that many non-Arabs were actually successful in the Standard arabic society, had good jobs and were well received by the community. "These people were non-Arab past descent, just they grew up amid the Arabs who possessed the addiction of Arabic," Ibn Khaldun once recalled, "[b]ecause of this, they were able to master Arabic and then well that they cannot be surpassed."^[51] He believed that the reason why not-Arabs were accepted every bit part of Arab lodge was due to their mastery of the Arabic linguistic communication.

Advancements in literary works such equally poems and prose were another fashion to distinguish the achievement of a civilization, merely Ibn Khaldun believed that whenever the literary facet of a society reaches its highest levels it ceases to signal societal achievements anymore, merely is an embellishment of life. For logical sciences he established knowledge at its highest level as an increase of scholars and the quality of noesis. For him the highest level of literary productions would be the manifestation of prose, poems and the artistic enrichment of a society.^[52]

Modest works [edit]

From other sources we know of several other works, primarily composed during the time he spent in North Africa and Al-Andalus. His outset book, Lubābu fifty-Muhassal, a commentary on the Islamic theology of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, was written at the age of 19 under the supervision of his teacher al-Ābilī in Tunis. A piece of work on Sufism, Shifā'u l-Sā'il, was composed effectually 1373 in Fes, Morocco. Whilst at the court of Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada, Ibn Khaldūn composed a piece of work on logic, ʻallaqa li-south-Sulṭān.

Legacy [edit]

A Laffer Curve with a maximum revenue indicate at around a 70%, as estimated by Trabandt and Uhlig (2009).^[53] Laffer cites Ibn Khaldun's ascertainment that "at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large acquirement from small assessments. At the terminate of the dynasty, revenue enhancement yields a small revenue from large assessments." as a predecessor.^{[54] [55]}

Egypt [edit]

Ibn Khaldun'south historical method had very few precedents or followers in his time. While Ibn Khaldun is known to have been a successful lecturer on jurisprudence inside religious sciences, merely very few of his students were enlightened of, and influenced by, his Muqaddimah.^[56] One such student, Al-Maqrizi, praised the Muqaddimah, although some scholars have plant his praise, and that of others, to be generally empty and defective understanding of Ibn Khaldun's methods.^[56]

Ibn Khaldun also faced primarily criticism from his contemporaries, specially Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani. These criticisms included accusations of inadequate historical knowledge, an inaccurate championship, disorganization, and a style resembling that of the prolific Arab literature writer, Al-Jahiz. Al-Asqalani too noted that Ibn Khaldun was not well-liked in Egypt considering he opposed many respected traditions, including the traditional judicial apparel, and suggested that this may have contributed to the reception of Ibn Khaldun'due south historical works.^[56] The notable exception to this consensus was Ibn al-Azraq, a jurist who lived shortly subsequently Ibn Khaldun and quoted heavily from the offset and quaternary books of the Kitab al-'Ibar, in developing a work of mirrors for princes.^[56]

Ottoman Empire [edit]

Ibn Khaldun's work found some recognition with Ottoman intellectuals in the 17th century. The starting time references to Ibn Khaldun in Ottoman writings appeared in the centre of the 17th century, with historians such every bit Kâtip Çelebi naming him as a great influence, while another Turkish Ottoman historian, Mustafa Naima, attempted to utilize Ibn Khaldun's cyclical theory of the rising and fall of empires to depict the Ottoman Empire.^[56] Increasing perceptions of the decline of the Ottoman Empire also caused like ideas to appear independently of Ibn Khaldun in the 16th century, and may explicate some of the influence of his works.^[56]

Europe [edit]

In Europe, Ibn Khaldun was first brought to the attention of the Western world in 1697, when a biography of him appeared in Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville's Bibliothèque Orientale. However, some scholars believe that Ibn Khaldun'due south work may have commencement been introduced to Europe via Ibn Arabshah's biography of Tamerlane, translated to Latin, which covers a meeting between Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane.^[57] According to Ibn Arabshah, during this meeting, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane discussed the Maghrib in depth, also as Tamerlane's genealogy and place in history.^[58] Ibn Khaldun began gaining more attention from 1806, when Silvestre de Sacy's Chrestomathie Arabe included his biography together with a translation of parts of the Muqaddimah as the Prolegomena.^[59] In 1816, de Sacy again published a biography with a more detailed description on the Prolegomena.^[60] More details on and partial translations of the Prolegomena emerged over the years until the consummate Standard arabic edition was published in 1858. Since then, the work of Ibn Khaldun has been extensively studied in the Western globe with special interest.^[61] Reynold A. Nicholson praised Ibn Khaldun every bit a uniquely brilliant Muslim sociologist, but discounted Khaldun's influence.^[57] Spanish Philosopher José Ortega y Gasset viewed the conflicts of North Africa as a problem that stemmed from a lack of African thought, and praised Ibn Khaldun for making sense of the conflict by simplifying it to the relationship betwixt the nomadic and sedentary modes of life.^[57]

Modern historians [edit]

British historian Arnold J. Toynbee has chosen Ibn Khaldun'south Muqaddimah "the greatest work of its kind."^[62] Ernest Gellner, in one case a professor of philosophy and logic at the London School of Economic science, considered Khaldun's definition of authorities^{[note 4]} the best in the history of political theory.^[63]

More moderate views on the scope of Ibn Khaldun's contributions accept also emerged. Arthur Laffer, for whom the Laffer curve is named, acknowledged that Ibn Khaldun's ideas, too as others, precede his own work on that curve.^[64]

Economist Paul Krugman described Ibn Khaldun as "a 14th-century Islamic philosopher who basically invented what we would now call the social sciences".^[65]

Scottish philosopher Robert Flint praised him strongly, "as a theorist of history he had no equal in any historic period or country until Vico appeared, more than three hundred years later. Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine were not his peers, and all others were unworthy of beingness even mentioned along with him". Ibn Khaldun's work on evolution of societies also influenced Egon Orowan, who termed the concept of socionomy.^[66] While Ibn Khaldun's record-keeping is normally passed over in favor of recognizing his contributions to the scientific discipline of history, Abderrahmane Lakhsassi wrote "No historian of the Maghreb since and particularly of the Berbers tin practise without his historical contribution."^[67]

Public recognition [edit]

Public recognition of Ibn Khaldun has increased in recent years. In 2004, the Tunisian Community Center launched the get-go Ibn Khaldun Award to recognize a Tunisian/American high achiever whose work reflects Ibn Khaldun's ideas of kinship and solidarity. The Award was named afterward Ibn Khaldun for the convergence of his ideas with the organization's objectives and programs. In 2006, the Atlas Economic Inquiry Foundation launched an annual essay contest^[68] for students named in Ibn Khaldun'southward award. The theme of the contest is "how individuals, recollect tanks, universities and entrepreneurs can influence government policies to allow the free market to flourish and amend the lives of its citizens based on Islamic teachings and traditions."^[68] In 2006, Spain commemorated the 600th anniversary of the death of Ibn Khaldun by orchestrating an showroom titled "Run into of Civilizations: Ibn Khaldun."^[69]

In 2007, İbn Haldun Üniversitesi has opened in Istanbul, Turkey to commemorate his name. The academy promotes a policy of trilingualism. The languages in question are English, Modern Turkish, and Arabic and its emphasis is on instruction social sciences.

In 1981 U.Southward. President Ronald Reagan cited Ibn Khaldun as an influence on his supply-side economic policies, too known as Reaganomics. He paraphrased Ibn Khaldun, who said that "in the beginning of the dynasty, bang-up tax revenues were gained from modest assessments," and that "at the stop of the dynasty, small-scale tax revenues were gained from large assessments." Reagan said his goal is "trying to go downwards to the small assessments and the keen revenues."^[seventy]

Bibliography [edit]

• Kitāb al-ʻIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʼ wa-l-Khabar fī Taʼrīkh al-ʻArab wa-l-Barbar wa-Man ʻĀṣarahum min Dhawī ash-Shaʼn al-Akbār
• Lubābu-l-Muhassal fee Uswoolu-d-Deen
• Shifā'u-s-Sā'il
• ʻAl-Laqaw li-due south-Sulṭān
• Ibn Khaldun. 1951 التعريف بإبن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا Al-Taʻrīf bi Ibn-Khaldūn wa Riħlatuhu Għarbān wa Sharqān. Published by Muħammad ibn-Tāwīt at-Tanjī. Cairo (Autobiography in Arabic).
• Ibn Khaldūn. 1958 The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. three vols. New York: Princeton.
• Ibn Khaldūn. 1967 The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history. Trans. Franz Rosenthal, ed. N.J. Dawood. (Abridged).
• Ibn Khaldun, 1332–1406. 1905 'A Selection from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldūn'. Trans. Duncan Macdonald

See also [edit]

• Asabiyyah
• Chanakya
• Egon Orowan
• List of Muslim historians
• Historiography of early Islam
• Laffer curve
• Muqaddimah
• Scientific discipline in medieval Islam
• Social cycle theory
• Averroes
• Abulcasis
• Ibn Arabi
• Ibn Tufail
• Sayyid Husayn Ahlati

Notes [edit]

1. ^
   • "...regarded by some Westerners as the true begetter of historiography and sociology".^[71]
   • "Ibn Khaldun has been claimed the forerunner of a great number of European thinkers, mostly sociologists, historians, and philosophers".(Boulakia 1971) harv mistake: no target: CITEREFBoulakia1971 (help)
   • "The founding father of Eastern Sociology".^[72]
   • "This grand scheme to find a new science of club makes him the forerunner of many of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries system-builders such every bit Vico, Comte and Marx." "Equally one of the early founders of the social sciences...".^[73]
2. ^
   • "He is considered by some every bit a male parent of mod economics, or at least a major forerunner. The Western world recognizes Khaldun every bit the father of sociology merely hesitates in recognizing him every bit a slap-up economist who laid its very foundations. He was the first to systematically analyze the functioning of an economy, the importance of technology, specialization and foreign trade in economic surplus and the role of government and its stabilization policies to increment output and employment. Moreover, he dealt with the trouble of optimum tax, minimum authorities services, incentives, institutional framework, law and order, expectations, product, and the theory of value".Cosma, Sorinel (2009). "Ibn Khaldun'southward Economic Thinking". Ovidius Academy Annals of Economic science (Ovidius University Press) XIV:52–57
3. ^ For classical fashion of Arab historians run across Ibrahim ibn ar-Raqīq (~d.1028) and al-Mālikī.
4. ^ "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself"

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ "Ibn Khaldun – His Life and Work". Archived from the original on thirteen September 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
2. ^ Ahmad, Zaid (2010). "Ibn Khaldun". In Oliver Leama (ed.). The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy. Continuum. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199754731.001.0001. ISBN978-0-xix-975473-1.
3. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster'southward Encyclopedia of World Religions . Merriam-Webstar Inc. p. 82. ISBN978-0-87779-044-0.
4. ^ https://themaydan.com/2017/eleven/myth-intellectual-reject-response-shaykh-hamza-yusuf/ "Ibn Khaldun on Philosophy: Subsequently clarifying what was meant precisely by philosophy in the Islamic tradition, namely the various schools of peripatetic philosophy represented either by Ibn Rushd or Ibn Sina, it should be articulate why Ibn Khaldun was opposed to them. His critique of philosophy is an Ash'ari critique, completely in line with the Ash'aris before him, including Ghazali and Fakhr al-din al-Razi, both of whom Ibn Khaldun recommends for those who wish to learn how to refute the philosophers"
5. ^ Muqaddimah ii:272–73 quoted in Weiss (1995) p 30
6. ^ Weiss 1995, p. 31 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWeiss1995 (help) quotes Muqaddimah ii:276–78
7. ^ Moss, Laurence S., ed. (1996). Joseph A. Schumpeter: Historian of Economics: Perspectives on the History of Economical Thought. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN978-one-134-78530-viii. Ibn Khaldun drited abroad from Al-Farabi's political idealism.
8. ^ In al-Muqaddima, Ibn Khaldun cites him equally a pioneer in sociology
9. ^ Shah, Muhammad Sultan. "Pre-Darwinian Muslim Scholars' Views on Evolution." (2017).
10. ^ ^{a b} Savant, Sarah Bowen (2014). Genealogy and Knowledge in Muslim Societies: Understanding the Past. Edinburgh Academy Press. p. 77. ISBN978-0-7486-4497-1. Banu Khaldun al-Hadrami (Yemen, but not Qahtan), to which belonged the famous historian Ibn Khaldun. The family'due south ancestor was 'Uthman ibn Bakr ibn Khalid, called Khaldun, a Yemeni Arab amidst the conquerors who shared kinship with the Prophet's Companian Wa'il ibn Hujr and who settled outset in Carmona then in Seville. The Historical Muhammad, Irving M. Zeitlin, (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, of course, Ibn Khaldun as an Arab hither speaking, for he claims Arab descent through the male line.". The Arab Earth: Society, Culture, and State, Halim Barakat (University of California Press, 1993), p. 48;"The renowned Arab sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun first interpreted Arab history in terms of badu versus hadar conflicts and struggles for power." Ibn Khaldun, M. Talbi, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. III, ed. B. Lewis, V.L. Menage, C. Pellat, J. Schacht, (Brill, 1986), 825; "Ibn Khaldun was built-in in Tunis, on I Ramadan 732/27 May 1332, in an Arab family which came originally from the Hadramawt and had been settled at Seville since the offset of the Muslim conquest...." Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History: A Report in the Philosophic Foundation of the Scientific discipline of Culture, Muhsin Mahdi, Routledge; "His family claimed descent from a Yemenite tribe originating in Hadramawt" Issawi, Charles. "Ibn Khaldūn". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 March 2021; "the greatest Arab historian", "the family unit claimed descent from Khaldūn, who was of Due south Arabian stock, and had come to Kingdom of spain in the early on years of the Arab conquest and settled in Carmona." Cheddadi, Abdesselam, "Ibn Khaldūn, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān", Encyclopaedia of Islam, 3; "was one of the greatest Arab historians, a philosopher, and a sociologist"
11. ^ Muhammad Hozien. "Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work". Islamic Philosophy Online. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
12. ^ "Ibn Khaldūn – The Muqaddimah: Ibn Khaldūn'southward philosophy of history". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 22 December 2020.
13. ^ Farid Alatas, Syed (2015). Applying Ibn Khaldūn: The Recovery of a Lost Tradition in Sociology. Routledge. ISBN978-1-138-12596-4. OCLC 914395509.
14. ^ Sulkunen, Pekka (2 September 2014). "The proto-sociology of Mandeville and Hume". Distinktion: Journal of Social Theory. 15 (3): 361–365. doi:x.1080/1600910X.2014.897639. ISSN 1600-910X. S2CID 144222817.
15. ^ • Joseph J. Spengler (1964). "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun", Comparative Studies in Gild and History, half-dozen(3), pp. 268-306.
      • Jean David C. Boulakia (1971). "Ibn Khaldûn: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", Journal of Political Economy, 79(5), pp. 1105–xviii.
16. ^ Bernard Lewis: "Ibn Khaldun in Turkey", in: Ibn Khaldun: The Mediterranean in the 14th Century: Rise and Fall of Empires, Foundation El Legado Andalusí, 2006, ISBN 978-84-96556-34-8, pp. 376–lxxx (376) Due south.M. Deen (2007) Science under Islam: ascension, refuse and revival. p. 157. ISBN 1-84799-942-5
17. ^ Ali Zaidi, Islam, Modernity, and the Homo Sciences, Springer, 2011, p. 84
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25. ^ "Saudi Aramco World: Ibn Khaldun and the Rise and Fall of Empires". archive.aramcoworld.com . Retrieved vi December 2017.
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28. ^ Ibn Khaldun's Political and Economic Realism. 26 March 2016.
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30. ^ Bent, Josephine van den (iii May 2016). ""None of the Kings on Earth is Their Equal in ʿaṣabiyya:" The Mongols in Ibn Khaldūn'due south Works". Al-Masāq. 28 (2): 171–86. doi:10.1080/09503110.2016.1198535. ISSN 0950-3110.
31. ^ Ibn Khaldun the Muqaddimah. An Introduction to History. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. In Three Volumes. Starting time Volume. 606 pages. Bollingen Foundation Serial xliii. Princeton University Printing. 1958. Prof. Dr. Darcy Carvalho. Feausp. Sao Paulo. Brazil. 2016
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35. ^ Muqaddimah 2 1995 p 30
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38. ^ Hannoum, Abdelmajid (2003). "Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn Orientalist". History and Theory. 42 (1): 77–eighty. doi:10.1111/1468-2303.00230. JSTOR 3590803.
39. ^ Oweiss, Ibrahim M. "Ibn Khaldun, the Begetter of Economics." Georgetown Academy, State University of New York Press, 1988, faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/ibn.htm.
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Sources [edit]

• Fuad Baali. 2005 The science of human social system : Alien views on Ibn Khaldun'due south (1332–1406) Ilm al-umran. Mellen studies in sociology. Lewiston/NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
• Walter Fischel. 1967 Ibn Khaldun in Arab republic of egypt : His public functions and his historical research, 1382–1406; a written report in Islamic historiography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Allen Fromherz. 2010 "Ibn Khaldun : Life and Times". Edinburgh Academy Printing, 2010.
• Ana Maria C. Minecan, 2012 "El vínculo comunitario y el poder en Ibn Jaldún" in José-Miguel Marinas (Ed.), Pensar lo político: Ensayos sobre comunidad y conflicto, Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, 2012.
• Mahmoud Rabi'. 1967 The political theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
• Róbert Simon. 2002 Ibn Khaldūn : History as science and the patrimonial empire. Translated by Klára Pogátsa. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Original edition, 1999.

Further reading [edit]

• Malise Ruthven, "The Otherworldliness of Ibn Khaldun" (review of Robert Irwin, Ibn Khaldun: An Intellectual Biography, Princeton University Press, 2018, ISBN 9780691174662, 243 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. two (seven Feb 2019), pp. 23–24, 26. "More than six centuries later on Ibn Khaldun'southward death the modern world has much to learn from studying him. After the Muqaddima itself, Irwin'south intellectual biography... is an first-class place to begin."

External links [edit]

English language [edit]

• Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work, past Muhammad Hozien
• Ibn Khaldun on In Our Time at the BBC
• Rosenthal, Franz (2008) [1970–80]. "Ibn Khaldūn". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com.
• Complete Muqaddimah/Kitab al-Ibar in English language (without Affiliate V, xiii)
• The Tunisian American Center (U.s.)
• Ibn Khaldun on the Web
• Muslim Scientists and Scholars – Ibn Khaldun
• Ibn Khaldun'south Philosophy of Direction and Work
• Ibn Khaldun (al-Muqaddimah): Methodology & concepts of economic folklore
• Ibn Khaldun. The Mediterranean in the 14th century: Rise and fall of Empires. Andalusian Legacy exhibition in the Alcazar of Seville
• The Ibn Khaldun Community Service Award©
• Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud
• The Ibn Khaldun Institute
• The Tunisian American Day©

Non-English language [edit]

• Multilingual tunisian academic web site on Ibn Khaldun
• (in French) Exposé simplifié sur la théologie scolastique
• Chapters from the Muqaddimah and the History of Ibn Khaldun (in Arabic)
• Ismail Küpeli: Ibn Khaldun und das politische System Syriens – Eine Gegenüberstellung, München, 2007, ISBN 978-3-638-75458-three (German language due east-book virtually the politics of Syria with reference to the political theory of Ibn Khaldun)
• Kuchinov A.Chiliad. Ibn Khaldun influence on social thought development // Lomonosov-2013. – Moscow, 2013. In Russian.
• Master's thesis on Ibn Khaldun published by FFLCH-USP in 2017 Roschel, Renato – São Paulo, 2017. In Portuguese.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun